Islam in China (1912–present)

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Islam in China from 1912 to today: a shorter, simpler overview

After the Qing dynasty fell in 1912, Sun Yat-sen’s new Republic of China said that the country belonged equally to several peoples, including the Han, Hui (Muslims), Mongols, and Tibetans. In this era, Muslims in China participated in politics and education, and Chinese-Muslim communities built organizations and schools. When the People's Republic of China (PRC) was founded in 1949, all religious groups faced political pressure, with Muslims experiencing the same upheaval as others.

Early 20th century: new organizations and education
The Hui Muslim community in China split in its support during the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912. Hui in Shaanxi generally backed the revolution, while Hui in Gansu supported the Qing. In Xi’an, some Hui Muslims fought on the side of the revolutionaries, and large-scale violence occurred in the city resulting in many deaths. After the Qing fell, China’s contact with Muslim-majority countries grew, helping ideas and people travel between China and the Muslim world. By 1939, several Hui Muslims had studied at Al-Azhar University in Cairo.

Muslim groups and learning flourished. The Chinese Muslim Federation formed in Nanjing in 1912, with similar organizations later in Beijing, Shanghai, and Jinan. Muslim scholars published journals, and Linxia in Gansu remained a key center for religious life, though many activities also moved to Beijing. National Muslim organizations grew, and Muslims held important roles in the military and government, including Bai Chongxi, who became defense minister of the Republic of China.

Demographics and wartime hardship
Estimates from the early 1900s suggest about 20 million Muslims lived in China proper, largely in Gansu, Shaanxi, and nearby areas. During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), Japan attacked mosques and Hui communities, aiming to weaken China’s Muslim regions. Hui and other Muslim groups participated in the resistance, with leaders like Ma Bufang organizing forces against Japan. Some Muslim areas suffered severe losses, including mass violence and destruction of religious sites.

PRC era: land reform, culture, and education
When the PRC was established, ten Muslim ethnic groups were officially recognized. In the early years, Muslims benefited from land reform, with mosque lands exempt from expropriation. But by 1958 the state pushed for large-scale collectivization, and many religious lands were confiscated as communes were created.

The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) targeted all religions, including Islam. Mosques were attacked, religious practices were suppressed, and many Muslim religious teachers and institutions suffered. In 1975, the Shadian uprising by Hui in Yunnan led to a harsh military response.

Reform and opening up
After Deng Xiaoping took power in 1979, China liberalized and gave minorities more cultural and educational rights. Muslims could study their languages and traditions, practice their religion more openly, and many went on the Hajj with government support. Sino-Arabic schools were built in Muslim areas, though Xinjiang was treated differently due to broader concerns about separatism.

Uyghur and other Xinjiang issues
The Uyghurs, a Turkic-speaking Muslim group in Xinjiang, have had long-standing desires for greater autonomy. In the 1930s and 1940s there were short-lived independent or semi-autonomous efforts, and the Soviet Union supported some Uyghur separatist movements during the Cold War. In recent decades, China has tightened control in Xinjiang, citing security concerns and efforts to combat extremism. Reports and international debates since the 2000s describe mass internment and surveillance programs described by the government as “re-education” or “vocational training centers.” The United Nations and other observers have called for transparency and due process. China says it is fighting extremism and protecting stability, while critics view the policies as harsh and as targeting Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims.

Religious life and differences within China
Hui Muslims generally have more religious freedom than Uyghurs in Xinjiang. Hui communities often maintain mosques and schools and can participate in fasting during Ramadan, though practices vary by region. Uyghurs in Xinjiang face more restrictions, including limits on travel, religious education, and the wearing of veils or other visible religious symbols in some contexts. The government has promoted the education and use of Mandarin and Chinese-language culture among Muslims, while also funding and supporting Islamic schools in many areas. Religious education for children has been a contentious issue, with different policies applying in different regions.

Tibet and interethnic tensions
In Tibet, most Muslims are Hui people, and historical tensions with Tibetan communities have roots in past warlord rule and regional conflicts. The 2008 ethnic riots between Tibetans and Muslims led to violence and destruction of property, including mosques and businesses. The relationship between Tibetan Buddhists and Hui Muslims has been shaped by political, cultural, and religious dynamics, with both cooperation and conflict at different times.

Technology, media, and policy
In recent years, the Chinese state has pursued a policy of “sinicizing” Islam—encouraging Muslims to align religious practice with Chinese social and political norms. There have been disagreements about how this should work in different regions. In 2017, a controversy emerged over a smartphone feature related to Islamic prayer times, highlighting the sensitive balance between modern technology and religious life. In 2023–2024, top leaders underscored the goal of deeper sinicization of Islam in Xinjiang and across China.

Current situation
Since the late 20th century, China has emphasized both the protection of minority rights and the integration of Muslims into Chinese society. Yet in Xinjiang and, to a lesser extent, in other regions, authorities have imposed stricter controls on religious practice, education, and movement. International observers describe a harsh environment for many Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims, including reports of mass detention, surveillance, and forced assimilation policies. The Hui, by contrast, generally retain broader religious freedoms in many parts of the country, though regional differences exist.

Overall, the story of Islam in China since 1912 shows a long history of religious life, education, and political involvement, tempered by periods of repression and, more recently, state-led efforts to balance religious practice with state priorities and nationalist goals.