Confederation period

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Confederation period (1781–1789): a short, simple version

What it was
After the American Revolution, the United States ran on the Articles of Confederation. This created a loose union of states with a very weak central government. Congress could do only what the states allowed. There was no president or national court, and no power to tax or regulate trade. Each state had one vote in Congress, and big decisions needed nine of the thirteen states or even unanimous consent to amend. In practice, the central government had little real power, and many leaders worried that the states would stay too independent to hold the country together.

Key events under the Articles
- The war ended with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which confirmed American independence and set broad western borders.
- The Northwest Ordinance (1787) created a plan to govern lands west of Pennsylvania and north of the Ohio River and set the path for new states to join the Union. It also banned slavery in that territory.
- Earlier land policies (Land Ordinances of 1784 and 1785) and the growth of western settlements helped shape future expansion, even as settlers faced obstacles from Native Americans and European powers.
- The government faced a growing debt problem because Congress could not levy taxes; states had to pay soldiers and debts themselves, leading to financial crises.

Problems and pressures for change
- Because Congress could not tax or regulate commerce, paying soldiers, funding the government, and paying debts became hard.
- After the war, many leaders feared the country would fall apart or fall under too much state power. Shays’ Rebellion in Massachusetts (1786–87) and other uprisings highlighted how weak the central government was.
- Foreign affairs were tricky. Britain kept forts on American land in the West, while Spain blocked American western trade on the Mississippi. The government struggled to present a united foreign policy.

How reform began
- The Mount Vernon Conference (1785) and the Annapolis Convention (1786) showed that states could work together when pressed, and they urged a stronger federal framework.
- A Philadelphia convention opened in 1787 to draft a new constitution. The delegates, led by George Washington, debated how a real national government should work.
- The Virginia Plan proposed a strong national government with three branches and representation based on population. The New Jersey Plan favored keeping stronger state powers with equal representation for each state. The result was the Connecticut Compromise: Congress would have two houses—the Senate (equal representation for states) and the House of Representatives (representation by population).
- Other major issues were settled in compromises: three-fifths of enslaved people would be counted for representation and taxes; the Constitution would protect slavery’s continuation for a time; the president would be elected indirectly by an Electoral College; a federal judiciary would exist; and Congress would gain powers to regulate commerce and coin money, which the Articles had denied.

Creating the new government
- The Philadelphia Convention produced a new framework, the United States Constitution, balancing power between national and state governments (federalism).
- The Constitution also created a stronger executive (the President), a bicameral Congress, and a national court system. It allowed for amendments through a process shorter than unanimous consent.
- Public debate followed. Federalists supported the new framework, while Anti-Federalists worried about concentrating power in a strong central government. To win broader support, Federalists promised to add a Bill of Rights protecting individual liberties after ratification.

Ratification and the new government
- Ratification happened state by state. Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey ratified early in 1787–1788; Georgia and Connecticut soon followed. Massachusetts and Maryland also approved, with Massachusetts winning support by promising amendments to limit federal power. Virginia and New York ratified after similar assurances.
- New Hampshire’s ratification in 1788 brought the new system close to operation, and the Constitution went into effect in 1789 after enough states had ratified it.
- The new government began with the 1st Congress in March 1789 and the presidency of George Washington. In September 1789, the Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments) was proposed by Congress and ratified by the states by 1791, protecting essential liberties.

What ended the Confederation period
- The United States moved from the weak, state-centered government of the Articles to a stronger federal system under the Constitution. The Confederation period ended as the new federal government began operating in 1789, with a framework designed to handle both foreign relations and domestic affairs more effectively.

In short
The Confederation period was the era when the new United States learned that the old system—one with a weak central government and powerful states—couldn’t meet the country’s needs. Out of lessons from debt, diplomacy, and rebellion, the Founders created a new Constitution that built a stronger, more unified national government while still keeping state power in check.