History of labour law

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The history of labour law is the story of how countries moved from letting workers be exploited in factories and mines to creating rules that protect health, safety, wages, and basic rights at work. It happened gradually, country by country, as workers, reformers, and governments pushed for change.

England and the rise of factory law
- In the early industrial era, many workers—especially children—toiled long hours in dangerous conditions with little education or protection.
- Public concern grew after accidents and disease were linked to factory life. Reformers like the Earl of Shaftesbury helped push for change.
- The first major step was the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act (1802), which limited apprentice hours, banned night work, required basic education, and provided shelter and clothing for pauper children in mills.
- In the following decades, acts restricted child labour further. The Cotton Mills and Factories Act (1819) set a minimum age and limited hours. The key Labour of Children, etc., in Factories Act (1833) introduced inspectors to enforce limits on children and adolescents and banned all night work for them.
- Over time, laws also began protecting workers’ health and safety. The Mines and Collieries Acts of 1842 and 1842–1855 limited who could work underground and introduced early safety measures. Industrial safety and inspection expanded to other trades.
- A major milestone was the Factory Act (1847), which effectively limited women’s and children’s work to about 10 hours a day. This era also saw the growth of official inspectors and more systematic enforcement.
- By the end of the century, England had built a comprehensive, if still evolving, system of factory regulation covering hours, safety, health, and the growing role of government inspectors.

Lesser-known steps in Europe
- France: Beginning in 1848, adults’ working days were limited and, by 1900, limits for women and young workers were strengthened. By 1902–1906, rules covered night work, school attendance for children, Sundays, and general health and safety in factories.
- Belgium: Laws from the late 1800s to early 1900s focused on unhealthy trades, child protection, Sunday rest, and later, safety rules and inspections.
- The Netherlands and Switzerland: These countries introduced similar protections, including limits on hours, health and safety standards, regular inspections, and rules about the truck system (payment of wages in ways other than coin) and other abusive practices.
- Germany and Austria-Hungary: Germany introduced strong nationwide Industrial Codes in the late 19th century, with limits for young workers, protections for women, safety rules, and a clear distinction between factory and workshop regimes. Austria and Hungary followed with their own codes, focusing on child labour, safety, hours, and health.

Other parts of Europe also pushed reforms
- Italy and Spain began adopting limits on women’s and children’s hours and on night work in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with growing attention to health, sanitation, and safety in industry.

The United States: learning from Britain, building its own system
- In the United States, early factory regulation started in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania, following English examples. The first waves focused on hours and child labour, with Massachusetts passing laws in the 1860s and 1870s that limited how long children could work and required schooling.
- The 1840s–1860s saw several states experiment with ten-hour days for certain industries, while public attention slowly grew to include education and safety.
- In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many states created factory acts to regulate hours, health, sanitation, and safety. Authorities established factory inspectors to enforce rules, along with regulations on dangerous machinery, ventilation, lighting, and cleanliness.
- The law also developed in the area of wages and contracts. States passed laws about how wages could be paid, prohibited certain deductions, and protected workers’ rights in contracts. The federal government and states began addressing employer liability for injuries, the rights to organize unions, and the legality of strikes and boycotts.
- A big shift came with the recognition that workers should be able to form unions and bargain collectively. Many states created protections for unions, while others dealt with how to regulate strikes, mediations, and arbitrations. Courts sometimes used injunctions to manage strikes and disputes, but government mediation and arbitration boards also became common.
- By 1910, the United States had a two-part framework: protective labour legislation (hours, safety, child labour, wages) and laws defining the legal status and rights of workers and employers, including contracts, organization rights, and dispute resolution.

What these changes achieved
- Shorter and safer workdays: Across many countries, long hours and dangerous conditions gave way to legal limits, holidays, and rest.
- Protection for the vulnerable: Children, women, and other workers received rules about hours, schooling, health, and safety.
- Health, safety, and sanitation: Laws required clean and well-ventilated workplaces, guards on dangerous machinery, proper lighting, and fire safety.
- Inspections and enforcement: Governments built inspectorates to check compliance and penalties for violations.
- Wages and contracts: Rules about how wages are paid and how contracts can be terminated protected workers from unfair practices.
- Unions and collective action: The right to form and join unions and to bargain collectively became a recognized and protected part of the system, with various mechanisms for handling disputes, including mediation and arbitration.

A common thread
- The push for labor law grew from a need to protect people who worked long hours in unsafe conditions. Over time, societies recognized that predictable rules—not only higher pay—help workers live healthier, more secure lives. While laws varied by country and era, the general trend was toward safer workplaces, fair pay, reasonable hours, child protection, and the freedom to organize and seek better working conditions.