Tocharian languages

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The Tocharian languages are an extinct branch of the Indo-European language family. They were spoken in the Tarim Basin, in what is now Xinjiang, China, by the Tocharians. We know them from manuscripts dating from about the 5th to the 8th centuries AD found in oasis towns at the basin’s edge and in nearby desert areas.

Two main languages are known:

- Tocharian A (East Tocharian, also called Agnean or Turfanian): found in the eastern Tarim region. It is mainly known from Buddhist religious texts.
- Tocharian B (West Tocharian, Kuchean): more widespread and found in both religious and secular writings across the area.

A third language named Tocharian C was proposed long ago, based on loanwords in some texts, but today most scholars agree there was no separate Tocharian C language.

Discovery and writing systems:

- The languages did not come to light until explorers in the early 20th century found the manuscripts. They were written on palm leaves, wooden tablets, and paper.
- Most texts use the Tocharian alphabet, a script descended from Brahmi. Some were written in the Manichaean script. The scripts helped scholars read and understand the language, and some works are bilingual, which aided decipherment.

Who spoke them and how they lived:

- The Tocharians are linked to the Afanasievo culture of South Siberia, an early eastern offshoot of steppe communities. They likely moved into the Tarim Basin later. The languages died out around 840 AD when Uyghurs moved into the area, though some Tocharian translations survive in Uyghur sources.

Linguistic highlights:

- Tocharian A and B are related but not mutually intelligible. A was probably more of a liturgical language, while B was the everyday language for much of the region.
- The languages are centum Indo-European, which helps scholars understand the early history of the Indo-European family.
- Tocharian B preserves more features of Proto-Tocharian than Tocharian A, making it especially important for reconstruction.
- The writing system reflects Sanskrit sounds, so some letters in the script don’t map directly to Tocharian sounds.

Grammar in brief:

- Both languages used a rich system of noun endings (cases) and various verb classes. They show many similarities to other Indo-European languages in their verb systems, but A and B have many differences in endings and forms. In short, they share a common base but developed their own unique features over time.

Historical context and influence:

- The Tocharians lived in a world of language contact, exchanging words with Iranian, Turkic, and Sinitic languages. Some Chinese words may come from Tocharian or related sources. The discovery of Tocharian also expanded our view of how far Indo-European languages spread.

Notable texts and culture:

- Most surviving Tocharian texts are religious, but there are also nonreligious items, including a famous Tocharian B love poem that expresses personal emotion and affection.

Why Tocharian matters:

- The discovery of Tocharian challenged simple ideas about how Indo-European languages spread and diversified. It provided crucial data for understanding the early history of the Indo-European family and the linguistic landscape of Central Asia. Today, scholars continue to study these languages to learn more about their speakers and their place in ancient language history.