Slavery in antiquity

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Slavery was a common part of life in many ancient societies, from Sumer to the Mediterranean before medieval times. People could become slaves because of debt, punishment for a crime, or after being captured in war. Masters could free their slaves, and sometimes freed slaves or their children could gain influence or power. Slaves did a lot of the hard work that kept economies running, especially in Greece and Rome.

In Mesopotamia and the surrounding regions, laws show a society with free people and enslaved people. The Code of Ur-Nammu (about 2100–2050 BCE) and the Code of Hammurabi (about 1750 BCE) tell how slaves were treated, how they could be returned if they ran away, and how masters should behave. Slaves were bought or captured, and some could even be freed or punished according to the law. Some laws covered what happened if a slave got sick or if a buyer tried to return one.

Egypt also depended on slave labor. Slaves came from war captives, poverty, or debt. Some slaves worked in households, temples, farms, crafts, or mines. Slaves could sometimes earn money, be trained for skilled work, or even become managers. Private slave ownership grew over time, and the price of a slave depended on skill and usefulness.

In the Hebrew Bible, slaves were a regular part of life with rules about their treatment. Israelite slaves were freed after seven years of service, and there were ways to release slaves during special jubilees. Non-Israelite slaves could remain in their owner’s family as property, with some protections and restrictions. The Bible discusses slavery in moral and religious terms as well as practical ones.

Ancient Greece had many forms of servitude. Some slaves were treated as property, while others had different statuses, like the helots in Sparta or the penestae in Thessaly. In Athens, slaves were a large part of the population and could sometimes earn money, run businesses, and save to buy their freedom. They could even help run estates or take part in city life, though they remained under their master’s control. The wealth of cities like Athens often came from slave labor in mines and workshops. Greek thinkers argued about slavery: some praised it as natural or useful, while others opposed it and argued for freedom and equal rights.

Rome built great wealth with slave labor as well. Slaves filled many roles, from hard labor to skilled work such as teaching, accounting, and medicine. When slaves were freed (manumission), they became citizens with certain rights, including the chance to vote, though they could not hold high political office. Slavery remained a key part of Roman life for many generations. Slaves were marked in various ways, such as collars or inscriptions, especially in late antiquity, and runaways sometimes bore marks or tags to identify them.

Later, other peoples also used slavery, and enslaved people could be captured, traded, or held for ransom. Evidence from different regions shows how widespread and varied slavery was across the ancient world.

Overall, slavery in ancient times was varied and deeply integrated into economies and daily life. Some slaves faced harsh conditions, while others could gain freedom, education, or even influence. Laws tried to regulate the practice, but it remained a central part of many societies for centuries.